More doubts on Dead Sea Scroll 'Authors'
Many of you readers have shown interest in a story I did recently about a Hebrew University Professor, Rachel Elior, casting doubt on the common wisdom that the Jewish sect known as the Essenes were the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls.So I'm re-printing an article that Elior wrote on the subject, which raises many well-reasoned doubts as to whether the Essenes existed, or were invented by Greek and Laton historians. Here's Elior's article:
The Essenes were first introduced by Philo (d. 50 CE), a first century Jewish scholar who lived in Alexandria. Philo was interested in the ideas of the Stoa and told his readers that there were more than 4,000 Essenes (Essaioi) living in villages throughout the Land of Israel. He maintained that these people had no monetary concerns, lived a very simple, modest life, did not have any earthly possessions, devoted much of their time to study, and observed the Sabbath according to all the strictest instructions. He further noted their love of God, their concerns with piety, honesty, morality, philanthropy, holiness, equality, freedom, and the importance of communal life. He added that the holy Essenes did not marry and lived a celibate life, and practiced communal residence, money, property, food and clothing. He said that they convened in synagogues every Sabbath and studied the law according to philosophical and allegorical interpretations. He maintained that these people cherished freedom, possessed no slaves, and resented the use of weapons or participation in commerce. Philo did not mention any name, place, date, or historical circumstances, or any background to the consolidation of this group.
However intriguing and interesting as these descriptions might be, we can not substantiate them on any historical or philological evidence: no Hebrew or Aramaic text before the Common Era or in the first century of the Common Era reveals any data about this perfect group that lived according to the highest ideals of freedom, equality, communality, modesty, chastity and liberty. No Hebrew or Aramaic text mentioned such a faultless group numbering thousands of people spread all over the country. No Jewish source written in Hebrew or Aramaic ever mentioned the existence of this celibate group that lived in opposition to the biblical commandment which demanded marriage and procreation from all members of Jewish society. No Hebrew source mentions a group that rejected slavery, denounced weapons, and resented commerce. No Hebrew or Aramaic source is familiar with the word Essenes or Essaioi.
The second witness, Pliny the Elder (d. 79 CE), relates in some few lines that the Essenes do not marry, possess no money (like Philo), and existed for thousands of generations. Unlike Philo, who did not mention any particular geographical location of the Essenes other than the whole land of Israel, Pliny mentioned Ein Gedi, next to the Dead Sea, as their residence. However, there is no room next to Ein Gedi for thousands of people and there is no word in the Hebrew language that refers to any of the above. No noun, no verb, no adjective is associated with the term Essenes, no chronicle or recollection of the legendary Essaioi or Essenes is to be found in the language of the land where they allegedly resided for thousands generations.
Josephus, writing in the last third of the first century in Rome, is the third witness. He relates the same information mentioned above concerning piety, celibacy, the resentment of property and the denouncing of money, the belief in communality and commitment to a strict observance of the Sabbath. He further added that the Essenes ritually immersed in water every morning, ate together after prayer, devoted themselves to charity and benevolence, forbade the expression of anger, studied the books of the elders, preserved secrets, and were very mindful of the names of the angels kept in their sacred writings. He further wrote that their life expectancy achieved more than 100 years.
There exists no known Hebrew or Aramaic text before or after the Common Era which supports any of these exceptional traits and ideal society that presumably had existed for many generations and thousands of years. It seems to me that this is a description of an ideal society in Utopia that Philo had imagined, and not a real society in the land of Israel in the first century CE. Pliny and Josephus were fascinated with this ideal of a holy community that respects the elderly and frees the slaves, cherishes equality and freedom, and has contempt for the values of the mundane world.
The New Testament knows nothing about such accomplished holy communities in the first century CE and the Apocrypha also reveals no sign of such moral achievements in any Jewish community.
On the other hand we have 930 scrolls or remnants of scrolls written in Hebrew and Aramaic which were found in Qumran 60 years ago. The scrolls (all translated into English) are dated in general to the Second and First Centuries before the Common Era. No scroll has the word Essenes or Essaioi or any close word.
All the scrolls are Holy Scriptures: they are associated with the biblical books written during the first millennium BCE; they include the ineffable name of God written in four letters in Paleo-Hebrew; they include the biblical narrative and its expansion. They further include stories told by angels as well as numerous lines of priestly-angelic liturgy, psalms, priestly blessings, Temple worship, priestly watches, priestly dynasty, priestly calendar, and priestly history.
The writers identify themselves in the Manual of Discipline and in the Damascus Document, the Florilegium, and the Rule of Blessings, as The Priests the sons of Zadok according to the biblical tradition of the high priesthood (II Samuel 15:27-29; 19:12; I Kings 1:34; Ezekiel 40:46; 43:19; 44:15; 48:11; I Chronicles 9:11; Ezra 7:2; Nehemiah 11:11). They refer to themselves as the Seed of Aaron, holy of holies, as the children of Zadok and their covenanters [allies], and similar priestly names. They call their leader the Priest of Justice (Cohen Zedek) and they authored texts that were titled as The Temple Scroll, The Scroll of Priestly Watches, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, The Scroll of Blessings -- all pertaining directly to priestly service in the earthly Temple and the heavenly sanctuaries.
Scholars who studied the legal tradition reflected in the scrolls associated it with the Sadducee's [=Zadokite priests] legal tradition. Scholars who studied the calendar attested in the scrolls associated it with the Sadducee's tradition on the calendar mentioned controversially by the Sages. Scholars who studied the language of the scroll attached it to Biblical Hebrew and post-Biblical Hebrew with unique priestly vocabulary.
In light of the above facts there are a few questions that I wish to raise:
Why should we associate the priestly oriented scrolls with the Essenes, who are not connected to the priesthood in any of the above testimonies? Why should we connect a library of 930 holy scriptures written in Hebrew and Aramaic to a group unknown in the Hebrew language [but known as Essenes (Essaioi) in Greek], which group is not associated with sacred writing, priestly worship, a solar calendar or Temple ritual -- all of which are central in the scrolls? Why not connect the scrolls to the explicitly asserted identity of the writers -- the priests, the sons of Zadok and their allies?
Why should we accept Josephus's evidence, which was based on Philo's non-historic description of an ideal community of thousands of people and was written in the last two decades of the first century CE, 250 years after the events of 175 BCE, when the Zadokite Priests were deposed from the Temple by Antiochus Epiphanes and took the scrolls from the defiled Temple in the middle of the second century BCE, in the Hasmonean period, and continued to write and copy them in the desert and elsewhere?
The priestly content of the scrolls -- which demonstrates obvious concern with holy time (priestly calendar; priestly watches that kept the sevenfold divisions of 364 days calendar -- cf. calendar of MMT; calendar in Scroll of priestly watches; calendar in Jubilees 4-6; I Enoch chapters 72-82; ritual calendar at the end of 11Q Psalm Scroll; calendar at the flood story 4Q252; calendar of festivals in the Temple Scroll; calendar of Sabbaths in Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice), with holy place (Temple on Mount Zion; Chariot vision; Holy of Holies -- Jubilees; Enoch; Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice), and with holy ritual (priestly blessings, psalms sung by the Levites, priestly songs; sacrificial ritual -- MMT; Damascus Document; Psalm Scroll, Temple Scroll, Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice) -- does not allow connecting the scrolls to the Essenes, who are not known to fight for a solar calendar, for holy place, or to debate on Temple rituals, as is obvious in the scrolls. The struggle between the Priest of Justice and the Wicked Priest in Pesher Habakkuk and Pesher Tehilim and in other Pesharim points out again to a priestly context and priestly struggle in the wake of the Biblical era.
Why should we dismiss the obvious priestly concern of the scrolls and the priestly history of the second and first centuries BCE at the Hasmonean period (152-37 BCE), attested richly by the scrolls, and the numerous connections to the world of the Bible, and replace it with the non-historical legendary Essenes of the first century CE, which offers no historical context?
Why should we rely on the questionable testimony of Philo, Pliny and Josephus, written in Greek and Latin outside of the Land of Israel in the first century, about peaceful celibates who lived ideal lives in a Utopia where the expression of anger, lust, greed or desire, and luxury or comfort, were utterly forbidden, and entirely disregard the most valuable testimony of 930 scrolls written in Hebrew and Aramaic by struggling, desperate Zadokite priestly circles and their supporters, who lost the sacred sovereignty of the Temple and the divine worship, promised to them in Exodus and Leviticus, and written clearly in sacred prose and holy poetry, their disappearing Biblical world, in the Hasmonean period, when they were deposed and lost all earthly power and had to rely upon the angelic world and an apocalyptic future?
by Tim McGirk/Jerusalem
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1
Thanks for this Tim.
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But, more interesting to Christians should be the Nag Hamadi Library; gnostic scriptures the early church fathers banned.
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A Bedouin named Mohammed Ali, in 1945 unearthed the buried scriptures in Egypt; in the land just above the bend of the Nile, north of the Valley of the Kings, across the river from the city of Nag´ Hammâdi, near the hamlet of al-Qasr, under a cliff called Jabal al-Tarif.
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Mohammed Ali had been out gathering sabakh, a nitrate-rich fertilizer for the crops that he grew in the small hamlet of al-Qasr. He was aghast to stumble upon a skeleton as he dug, and bewildered when he uncovered a two-foot high earthenware jar. A bowl had been placed over the top, and it was sealed with bitumen.
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At first, the Bedouin thought an evil genie was within, but when he shook the heavy jar, he heard things moving and thought it might be gold. He smashed the jar open and out fluttered pieces of gold particles that he tried to catch, but they disappeared. When he peered into the jar, he was dismayed to find twelve leather-bound books.
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Mohammed Ali was illiterate, so he placed no great value on books, but was confident he could sell them and make something for his troubles. He carried the jar filled with books back to the homestead.
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Mohammed Ali also happened to be a fugitive from the law, for he had wielded the weapon that spilled the blood of a patriarch during a violent incident in a generation-long family feud, not so very long before. After a few days of mulling over possibilities, he decided to give his find to the local Coptic priest for safekeeping. He feared the authorities soon would be lurking about and would confiscate his possession before he could receive any money for it.
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His mother had ripped out many pages to keep the home fire going, and I wonder what ancient treasures she burned. Anyway, the priest passed it on to his brother-in-law, a traveling tutor, who brought the books to the Coptic museum in Cairo on October 4, 1946.
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The United Nation Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization/UNESCO, determined that the ancient compositions, written in Coptic had been translated from ancient Greek. The volumes were leather-bound pages of papyrus, and no doubt the gold dust that Mohammed Ali witnessed was from papyrus fragments that had broken off.
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Under the leadership of UNESCO, Egypt, and the American scholar James Robinson, these anthologies and collections of texts with titles like the Gospel of Thomas and the Gospel of Mary Magdalene were then translated into many languages.
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The scriptures date back to the early days of Christianity. The most likely source for these books was the Pachomius Monastery, which thrived for centuries just three miles from the burial site. I believe a monk buried these books in the wilderness under the cliff of Jabl al-Tarif for safe-keeping, because two thousand years ago, there were many different understandings of Jesus among Christians.
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Thanks to the treasures of Nag´ Hammâdi, we now know how rich and diverse those understandings were.
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These texts were deemed heretical by those who were gaining power through the political arena during the reign of Emperor Constantine.
.Both a patriarchal monarchical state and church were formed at the same time. Power struggles and debates were common among the early Christians. Individual churches determined which texts were read, and they all had their favorites.
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Constantine sought to unite his empire, and uniting the church was a savvy political move. He announced he would pay for fifty illuminated copies of scripture to be bound, and thus the biblical canon was established and sealed. There was fierce debate among the bishops about what should be included and what left out.
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The proto-orthodox, who had now become the dominant voice, determined what was heretical for everyone. The proto-orthodox demanded much-loved scripture to be burned, usually because it did not fit their understanding of God.
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These texts were considered Gnostic. Gnosis is defined as knowledge discerned intuitively. Gnostic texts offer deep mystery that is discerned via intuition, not rational thought. This is not the way for fundamentalists.
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A Gnostic is open to receiving intuitive knowledge of deep spiritual truth. For students of the New Testament, this is a much greater find than the Dead Sea Scrolls.
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Forty of the texts had previously been unknown to modern scholars. Thirty-five scholars worked on these translations, and agreed that the bound books themselves dated back to the fourth century and were written in Coptic translated from Greek and Aramaic.
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The Gospel of Thomas is one of them. It is a collection of the sayings of Jesus, words of wisdom, proverbs, parables, and some very confounding mysteries.
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About 35 of the 114 sayings have no counterpart in the New Testament, while at least 20 are almost identical, and 54 have similarities. Many scholars concur that the sayings were originally written in Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic, the language of Jesus and his followers.
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It is very possible the sayings are closer to the words Jesus actually spoke than what is found in the canonical gospels.The proto-orthodox, who were the majority, considered gnostic texts anathema, and they were deemed heretical for many reasons, and usually it was because they did not fit neatly into the evolving dogma.
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Gnostic texts offer us mystery, not answers.
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For centuries, all we had to reconstruct Gnostic beliefs were the hostile accounts against them given by Irenaus, Tertullian, Hippolytus, Epiphanius, and other church fathers who disagreed with the Gnostic understanding.
.Eileen Fleming, Author,
Founder WAWA:
http://www.wearewideawake.org/
Producer "30 Minutes With Vanunu" and "13 Minutes with Vanunu" -
2
OK, not exactly on topic, but still a worthwhile item to discuss given the umbrella topic of the blog:
New York Times
March 19, 2009
Iranian Blogger Reported Dead in Prison
By MARSHALL KIRKPATRICK, ReadWriteWeb
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Omid Reza Misayafi, one of a number of Iranian bloggers arrested for "insulting" the government and religious authorities in that country, is dead. Misayafi's death was reported on Global Voices Online via an Iranian human rights site in Farsi and we learned of it from The Committee to Protect Bloggers.
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No cause of death is yet known, but the Committee says torture of bloggers is common in Iran and they are usually placed in close proximity to the most dangerous criminals in any facility. Misayafi was sentenced in December to 30 months in prison "for insulting Islamic Republic Leaders." The man said he was a cultural blogger, not a political one, and only wrote a few satirical articles that got him into trouble.
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An update tonight indicates that the prison conditions may have led the man to take his own life. Directly or indirectly, it appears that Misayafi's life has been brought to an end for exercising free speech, for criticizing an authoritarian state and for doing it using online social media. Social media users and advocates around the world should take note of this event.
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We've reported here on a number of bloggers imprisoned in Iran and in Egypt for documenting government abuses or just writing critical words about governments that demand total compliance. In the middle of last year we wrote about Iran's parliament debating legislation that would add the death penalty to the list of possible punishments for using blogs to challenge government authority.
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It is a timeless battle all around the world between freedom, art and self expression on one side and authority, expediency and abuse on the other. The rise of the web has made that battle different, though. Blogs give a voice to the previously voiceless, and the historical and moral importance of efforts to save those new voices from arrest, torture and death cannot be overstated.
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We would love to see the Obama administration, which has made extensive use of online social media, publicly and explicitly condemn this death at the Iranian government's hands. We'd be surprised if that happened.
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Social media is powerful and changing the world; we don't expect that this will be the last person to lose their life over it. Omid Reza Misayafi, brave Iranian blogger, may you rest in peace. May all those imprisoned for blogging in Iran, and around the world, be set free.
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For ongoing coverage of this and all-too similar situations around the world, see The Committee to Protect Bloggers and associated organizations linked to on their site.
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http://www.nytimes.com/external/readwriteweb/2009/03/19/19readwriteweb-iranian_blogger_reported_dead_in_prison.html -
3
Tim/Eileen - thanks, both interesting, thought provoking and new to me - and a refreshing change.
Jacob. WTF?
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Alex,
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As I said originally, I know the post is off topic, but there have been a rash of queries about why Scott McCloud doesn't blog about Egypt, and within the post I put up about the killing of the Iranian blogger there is a discussion to the risk run by bloggers in dictatorial states.
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//Essenes ritually immersed in water every morning, ate together after prayer, devoted themselves to charity and benevolence, forbade the expression of anger, studied the books of the elders, preserved secrets, and were very mindful of the names of the angels kept in their sacred writings.//
This reminds me exactly of how the Hindu Vedas talk about the "Vedic Holy Men". They were supposed to do the Exact same thing.. and did the exact same thing.. which you will notice if you read the Hindu literature.. interesting... coincidence in the least!
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March 20, 2009
I read today in Time the article about the Essenes. I did not hear before the name of Prof. Rachel Lior, but after I found in the Internet her biography I saw her photo. I saw her several times in the Israeli TV, but I did not pick up the name. She left on me an impression as a "leftist" or "smolanit" as we call it in Hebrew. In our universities there are many of them. They are always against the establishment. It seems to me that Prof. Elior wrote what she wrote because most of the researchers say something else. -
7
Tim McGirk should consult with Dr. Randall Price, a prominent author and lecturer on Biblical subjects, particularly Biblical archeology. Dr. Price is presently involved with a dig at Qumran near the Dead Sea Scroll caves at the north end of the Dead Sea. His dig team has found considerable evidence indicating that a commune existed in this location around the time that Jesus lived. This dig has yielded many artifacts indicating that an Essene community existed in this location, probably for many years. Dr. Price is seeking evidence to determine whether this Essene community had any contact with Jesus.
While McGirk's article and subsequent blog were reasonably scholarly in presentation, they fail to present both sides to the debate about whether Essenes actually existed, and if so, what were their customs and practices. A balanced presentation would be more enlightening.
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Undoubtedly the Essenes were influenced by the ancient Vedic culture. Just as there is evidence of a Vedic king's influence hung on the walls of the Kaaba, the celibacy, purification by bathing, chants and mantras etc. are all common in Brahminical life.
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9
Tim, you wrote a very insightful article here: http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1886856,00.html . I submitted my recommendation to the editors to have your story return to the front page again. I find it more interesting than debating the fairy tales Judeo/Christian/Islamic people follow spanning back and basically stolen from Babylonian and Zoroastrian mythologies.
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Also, I hereby submit my nomination for Jacob to be Iran's next biggest domestic blogger.
Indeed, WTF? How many times do people have to tell you to remain on topic and not copy and paste entire articles here (it's called a hyperlink). Cmon man... -
10
It's been a week now since any new blogs have gone up (we want more!) so forgive me for straying off topic:
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In your latest article about Labor joining Likud, Tim, you wrote:
"On the upside, with Barak as his ally, Netanyahu has a strong defense minister to stand up to the Iranian nuclear threat and to Hamas militants ruling Gaza."
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Now, I am not as anal as some of the other blog readers here (*cough* right-wing Zionists *cough*), but I challenge you to elaborate on what the Iranian nuclear threat really is? I ask you, what is more of a threat:
Israel with over 300 nuclear warheads already in existent, manufactured in clandestine fashion against the will of the United States in the 70s (JFK got a bullet in the head and he was the last President to ask for inspections), who has waged wars of aggression against almost all of its neighbors in its short 60 year history, continues to be caught in lies and is, without a doubt, guilty of apartheid, genocide, and indiscriminate killing, and continues to threaten, on a daily basis, Iran and its people with strikes, waxing poetic about possible ways to accomplish such a thing, including by use of its nuclear weapons.
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or
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Iran who has not waged a war of aggression in many, many decades, has extended the olive branch to the West twice only to be shunned by Bush, signed the NPT and adheres to it in good faith, continues to allow inspectors on its sovereign grounds, does not have a single nuclear armament in its arsenal, has categorically rejected any propaganda about its aims to even target Israel, and continues to ask simply for reapproachment in a manner of mutual respect without the BS?
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Gee, I dunno, you coulda fooled me. -
11
Sorry to burst Nick's table pounding.
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I read just now the comment of Persianadvocate. Oh, the ruling class of Iran are really "nice guys". They imprisoned hundreds of Americans in the American Embassy for about one year, just after the Humeini Revolution. Now they creep to America to renew relationship. And the Iranian president Ahmadinejad menaces every couple of days that he will erase Israel from the map. Before the Islamic revolution Iran had excellent relations with Israel. I hope that someday Iran will be again a modern country.
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You only need to read Farsi at a 3rd grade level to read Ahmadinejad's speech transcripts and observe for yourself that he never explicitly or implicitly called for an act of war against Israel. This is a mistranslation that has been used endlessly by anti-Iranian factions to portray Iran as an aggressive Middle East giant.
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The hostage crisis was emotional for America, but there were no bodily injuries or deaths. The embassy takeover was a result of the 1953 CIA overthrow of Iran's nascent democracy. The revolutionary students did not want the US to use the embassy to plot another coup as they did in the 50s.
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No Iranian will tell you that the Mullahs are angels. However, the crushing of internal dissent remains an Iranian problem. The loss of nearly 300 civilian lives in the 1988 downing of an Iranian airbus by the USS Vincennes warship, the US backing of an invasion by Saddam Hussein, whose army killed 300,000 Iranians in combat and used US-supplied chemical weapons on 1,000,000 more.... that is a US-Iranian problem.
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Israel can be friends with a modern Iran, too... sure. -
14
Nick,
I have no doubt you read Farsi at a 3d grade level.
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To persianadvocate: We have here in Israel tens of thousands of jews of Iranian origin and many many of them are fluent in Farsi. How is it that no one of them said that Ahmadinejad (the President) was not translated correctly ?
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4alitani,
Have you asked or had the opportunity to listen to any or all of those tens of thousands of Iranian Jews to translate for you Ahmadinejad's speech from October 25, 2005, from the Farsi? I am not the only Farsi-speaker to do so. In fact, scholars of great repute have consistently pointed out that Nazin Falthi's New York Time translation was done in a hasty and careless matter, and that the phrase that has been singled out time and time again, does not request, in any way, that Israel be wiped off the map. In fact, there is no such saying in Persian -- that is an English idiom!
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I personally translated, word for word, from the original Farsi to English for every author and reader of this blog that exact speech. Ahmadinejad is quoting from Khomenei's speech 20 years earlier and, without possibility of ambiguity, agrees with Khomenei that the Israeli government will be undone from the pages of time in due course. It is in no way, an explicit or implicit, call to attack Israel or the Israelis. Further, Ahmadinejad consistently refuted any call for an attack on Israel or Jews. That can be found here (amongst many other places): http://www.presstv.ir/detail.aspx?id=62989§ionid=351020101
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A recent CIA assessment agreed with Ahmadinejad: Israel will be gone in at least 20 years due to an overwhelming Palestinian population density. ALso, we must remember while Ahmadinejad is loud and controversial, his policies are checked by a large amount of clerics and also subordinate to any rulings by the Supreme Leader. I suppose if Nancy Pelosi says that the Iranian government should be toppled, Iranians everywhere should cry bloody murder over the existential (read: faked) threat of an anti-Iranian genocidal America. -
17
4alitani,
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You'll have to forgive Nick. He draws his line in the sand over the possible what or what not the dinner jacket said.
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That Iran continues to ship tons of weapons to Hizballah and HAMAS, as it did with the Karine-A to Yasser Arafat...That, he remains silent on.
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No, actually I have something to say about that, too. For decades, Israel has been providing material support and funding to officially recognized terrorist groups that have anti-Iranian aims, such as, but not limited to, Jundullah and the MEK. Iran's support of the Palestinian cause is not only tit for tat, but Israel's policies have shown truly that you reap what you sow.
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